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<title>Reproduction</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Reproduction</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Reproduction_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Reproduction (disambiguation)">Reproduction (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Procreate" redirects here. For the application, see <a href="Procreate_(software)" title="Procreate (software)">Procreate (software)</a>.</div>

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<p><b>Reproduction</b> (or <b>procreation</b> or <b>breeding</b>) is the <a href="Biological_process" title="Biological process">biological process</a> by which new individual <a href="Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> – "<a href="Offspring" title="Offspring">offspring</a>" – are produced from their "parent" or parents. There are two forms of reproduction: <a href="Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual</a> and <a href="Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual</a>.

</p><p>In asexual reproduction, an organism can reproduce without the involvement of another organism. Asexual reproduction is not limited to <a href="Unicellular_organism" title="Unicellular organism">single-celled organisms</a>. The <a href="Cloning" title="Cloning">cloning</a> of an organism is a form of asexual reproduction. By asexual reproduction, an organism creates a genetically similar or identical copy of itself. The <a href="Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">evolution of sexual reproduction</a> is a major puzzle for biologists. The two-fold cost of sexual reproduction is that only 50% of organisms reproduce<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and organisms only pass on 50% of their <a href="Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-maynard_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-maynard-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Sexual reproduction typically requires the sexual interaction of two specialized reproductive cells, called <a href="Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a>, which contain half the number of <a href="Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> of normal cells and are created by <a href="Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, with typically a male <a href="Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilizing</a> a female of the same <a href="Species" title="Species">species</a> to create a fertilized <a href="Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>. This produces offspring organisms whose genetic characteristics are derived from those of the two parental organisms.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asexual">Asexual</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">Asexual reproduction</a></div>

<p>Asexual reproduction is a process by which organisms create genetically similar or identical copies of themselves without the contribution of genetic material from another organism. Bacteria divide asexually via <a href="Binary_fission" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary fission">binary fission</a>; viruses take control of host cells to produce more viruses; <a href="Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">Hydras</a> (<a href="Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> of the <a href="Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> <i>Hydroidea</i>) and <a href="Yeast" title="Yeast">yeasts</a> are able to reproduce by <a href="Budding" title="Budding">budding</a>. These organisms often do not possess different sexes, and they are capable of "splitting" themselves into two or more copies of themselves. Most plants have the ability to reproduce asexually and the ant species <a href="Mycocepurus_smithii" title="Mycocepurus smithii">Mycocepurus smithii</a> is thought to reproduce entirely by asexual means.

</p><p>Some species that are capable of reproducing asexually, like <a href="Hydra_(genus)" title="Hydra (genus)">hydra</a>, <a href="Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a> (See <a href="Mating_of_yeast" title="Mating of yeast">Mating of yeasts</a>) and jellyfish, may also reproduce sexually. For instance, most plants are capable of <a href="Vegetative_reproduction" title="Vegetative reproduction">vegetative reproduction</a> – reproduction without seeds or spores – but can also reproduce sexually. Likewise, bacteria may exchange genetic information by <a href="Bacterial_conjugation" title="Bacterial conjugation">conjugation</a>.

</p><p>Other ways of asexual reproduction include <a href="Parthenogenesis" title="Parthenogenesis">parthenogenesis</a>, <a href="Fragmentation_(reproduction)" title="Fragmentation (reproduction)">fragmentation</a> and <a href="Spore_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Spore formation">spore formation</a> that involves only <a href="Mitosis" title="Mitosis">mitosis</a>. Parthenogenesis is the growth and development of <a href="Embryo" title="Embryo">embryo</a> or <a href="Seed" title="Seed">seed</a> without <a href="Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a>. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some species, including lower plants (where it is called <a href="Apomixis" title="Apomixis">apomixis</a>), <a href="Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> (e.g. <a href="Water_flea" class="mw-redirect" title="Water flea">water fleas</a>, <a href="Aphid" title="Aphid">aphids</a>, some <a href="Bee" title="Bee">bees</a> and <a href="Parasitic_wasp" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic wasp">parasitic wasps</a>), and <a href="Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a> (e.g. some

reptiles,<sup id="cite_ref-reptiles_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-reptiles-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> some fish,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and very rarely, domestic birds<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>).

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sexual">Sexual</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Human_reproduction" title="Human reproduction">Human reproduction</a></div>

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</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:204px;max-width:204px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="Hoverfly" title="Hoverfly">Hoverflies</a> mate in midair flight</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a>, <a href="Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, and <a href="Mammalian_reproduction" title="Mammalian reproduction">mammals reproduce</a> by <a href="Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">internal fertilization</a>. Male mammals <a href="Ejaculation" title="Ejaculation">ejaculate</a> <a href="Semen" title="Semen">semen</a> through the <a href="Penis" title="Penis">penis</a> into the <a href="Vagina" title="Vagina">vagina</a> during <a href="Copulation_(zoology)" title="Copulation (zoology)">copulation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hyman1992_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hyman1992-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div></div></div></div>

<p>Sexual reproduction is a <a href="Biological_process" title="Biological process">biological process</a> that creates a new <a href="Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> by combining the <a href="Genetics" title="Genetics">genetic</a> material of two organisms in a process that starts with <a href="Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, a specialized type of <a href="Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a>. Each of two parent organisms contributes half of the offspring's genetic makeup by creating <a href="Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> <a href="Gametes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametes">gametes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most organisms form two different types of gametes. In these <i><b>anisogamous</b></i> species, the two sexes are referred to as male (producing <a href="Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a> or microspores) and female (producing <a href="Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">ova</a> or megaspores).<sup id="cite_ref-Kumar-201922_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kumar-201922-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i><b>isogamous species</b></i>, the gametes are similar or identical in form (<a href="Isogamete" class="mw-redirect" title="Isogamete">isogametes</a>), but may have separable properties and then may be given other different names (see <a href="Isogamy" title="Isogamy">isogamy</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because both gametes look alike, they generally cannot be classified as male or female. For example, in the green alga, <i>Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</i>, there are so-called "plus" and "minus" gametes. A few types of organisms, such as many fungi and the <a href="Ciliate" title="Ciliate">ciliate</a> <i>Paramecium aurelia</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have more than two "sexes", called <a href="Mating_type" title="Mating type">mating types</a>.

Most animals (including humans) and plants reproduce sexually. Sexually reproducing organisms have different sets of genes for every trait (called <a href="Alleles" class="mw-redirect" title="Alleles">alleles</a>). Offspring inherit one allele for each trait from each parent. Thus, offspring have a combination of the parents' genes. It is believed that "the masking of deleterious alleles favors the evolution of a dominant diploid phase in organisms that alternate between haploid and diploid phases" where recombination occurs freely.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">Bryophytes</a> reproduce sexually, but the larger and commonly-seen organisms are <a href="Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> and produce <a href="Gametes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametes">gametes</a>. The gametes fuse to form a <a href="Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a> which develops into a <a href="Sporangium" title="Sporangium">sporangium</a>, which in turn produces haploid spores. The <a href="Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> stage is relatively small and short-lived compared to the haploid stage, i.e. <i>haploid dominance</i>. The advantage of diploidy, heterosis, only exists in the diploid life generation. Bryophytes retain sexual reproduction despite the fact that the haploid stage does not benefit from heterosis. This may be an indication that the sexual reproduction has advantages other than heterosis, such as <a href="Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">genetic recombination</a> between members of the species, allowing the expression of a wider range of traits and thus making the population more able to survive environmental variation.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allogamy">Allogamy</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Allogamy" title="Allogamy">Allogamy</a></div>

<p>Allogamy is the fertilization of flowers through cross-pollination, this occurs when a flower's ovum is fertilized by spermatozoa from the pollen of a different plant's flower.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-plant_systematics_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plant_systematics-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollen may be transferred through <a href="Pollinator" title="Pollinator">pollen vectors</a> or abiotic carriers such as wind. Fertilization begins when the pollen is brought to a female gamete through the pollen tube. Allogamy is also known as cross fertilization, in contrast to autogamy or geitonogamy which are methods of self-fertilization.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autogamy">Autogamy</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Autogamy" title="Autogamy">Autogamy</a></div>

<p>Self-<a href="Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">fertilization</a>, also known as autogamy, occurs in <a href="Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">hermaphroditic</a> organisms where the two <a href="Gamete" title="Gamete">gametes</a> fused in fertilization come from the same individual, e.g., many <a href="Vascular_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular plants">vascular plants</a>, some <a href="Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminiferans</a>, some <a href="Ciliate" title="Ciliate">ciliates</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-plant_systematics_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-plant_systematics-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "autogamy" is sometimes substituted for autogamous pollination (not necessarily leading to successful fertilization) and describes <a href="Self-pollination" title="Self-pollination">self-pollination</a> within the same flower, distinguished from <a href="Geitonogamy" title="Geitonogamy">geitonogamous pollination</a>, transfer of pollen to a different flower on the same <a href="Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plant</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or within a single <a href="Monoecious" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoecious">monoecious</a> <a href="Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperm</a> plant.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mitosis_and_meiosis">Mitosis and meiosis</h3></div>

<p><a href="Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a> and <a href="Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a> are types of <a href="Cell_division" title="Cell division">cell division</a>. Mitosis occurs in <a href="Somatic_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Somatic cells">somatic cells</a>, while meiosis occurs in <a href="Gametes" class="mw-redirect" title="Gametes">gametes</a>.

</p><p><b>Mitosis</b>

The resultant number of cells in mitosis is twice the number of original cells. The number of <a href="Chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomes">chromosomes</a> in the offspring cells is the same as that of the parent cell.

</p>

<p><b>Meiosis</b>

The resultant number of cells is four times the number of original cells. This results in cells with half the number of <a href="Chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosomes">chromosomes</a> present in the parent cell. A <a href="Diploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid">diploid</a> cell duplicates itself, then undergoes two divisions (<a href="Tetraploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetraploid">tetraploid</a> to diploid to haploid), in the process forming four <a href="Haploid" class="mw-redirect" title="Haploid">haploid</a> cells. This process occurs in two phases, meiosis I and meiosis II.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gametogenesis">Gametogenesis</h3></div>

<p>Animals, including mammals, produce gametes (sperm and egg) by means of <a href="Origin_and_function_of_meiosis" title="Origin and function of meiosis">meiosis</a> in gonads (testicles in males and ovaries in females). Sperm are produced by <a href="Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">spermatogenesis</a> and eggs are produced by <a href="Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">oogenesis</a>. During gametogenesis in mammals numerous genes encoding proteins that participate in DNA repair mechanisms exhibit enhanced or specialized expression.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid11226027_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid11226027-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Male <a href="Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">germ cells</a> produced in the testes of animals are capable of special <a href="DNA_repair" title="DNA repair">DNA repair</a> processes that function during meiosis to repair DNA damages and to maintain the integrity of the <a href="Genome" title="Genome">genomes</a> that are to be passed on to progeny.<sup id="cite_ref-Garcia-Rodriguez2018_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garcia-Rodriguez2018-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such DNA repair processes include <a href="Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombinational</a> repair as well as <a href="Non-homologous_end_joining" title="Non-homologous end joining">non-homologous end joining</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Garcia-Rodriguez2018_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garcia-Rodriguez2018-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Oocyte" title="Oocyte">Oocytes</a> located in the <a href="Folliculogenesis" title="Folliculogenesis">primordial follicle</a> of the ovary are in a non-growing <a href="Prophase" title="Prophase">prophase</a> arrested state, but are able to undergo highly efficient <a href="Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombinational</a> repair of <a href="DNA_damage_(naturally_occurring)" title="DNA damage (naturally occurring)">DNA damages</a> including double-strand breaks.<sup id="cite_ref-Stringer2020_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stringer2020-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These repair processes allow the integrity of the <a href="Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> to be maintained and offspring health to be protected.<sup id="cite_ref-Stringer2020_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stringer2020-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="LGBT_reproduction" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT reproduction">LGBT reproduction</a> and <a href="Reproductive_technology" title="Reproductive technology">Reproductive technology</a></div>

<p> Scientific research is currently investigating the possibility of same-sex procreation, which would produce offspring with equal genetic contributions from either two females or two males.<sup id="cite_ref-Kissin_2019_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kissin_2019-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The obvious approaches, subject to a growing amount of activity, are <a href="Female_sperm" title="Female sperm">female sperm</a> and <a href="Male_egg" title="Male egg">male eggs</a>. In 2004, by altering the function of a few genes involved with imprinting, other Japanese scientists combined two mouse eggs to produce daughter mice<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in 2018 Chinese scientists created 29 female mice from two female mice mothers but were unable to produce viable offspring from two father mice. Researches noted that there is little chance these techniques would be applied to humans in the near future.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Strategies">Strategies</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Modes_of_reproduction" title="Modes of reproduction">Modes of reproduction</a> and <a href="Life_history_theory" title="Life history theory">Life history theory</a></div>

<p>There are a wide range of reproductive strategies employed by different species. Some animals, such as the human and <a href="Northern_gannet" title="Northern gannet">northern gannet</a>, do not reach <a href="Sexual_maturity" title="Sexual maturity">sexual maturity</a> for many years after birth and even then produce few offspring. Others reproduce quickly; but, under normal circumstances, most offspring do not survive to <a href="Adult" title="Adult">adulthood</a>. For example, a rabbit (mature after 8 months) can produce 10–30 offspring per year, and a <a href="Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">fruit fly</a> (mature after 10–14 days) can produce up to 900 offspring per year. These two main strategies are known as <a href="K-selection" class="mw-redirect" title="K-selection">K-selection</a> (few offspring) and <a href="R-selection" class="mw-redirect" title="R-selection">r-selection</a> (many offspring). Which strategy is favoured by <a href="Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> depends on a variety of circumstances. Animals with few offspring can devote more resources to the nurturing and protection of each individual offspring, thus reducing the need for many offspring. On the other hand, animals with many offspring may devote fewer resources to each individual offspring; for these types of animals it is common for many offspring to die soon after birth, but enough individuals typically survive to maintain the population. Some organisms such as honey bees and fruit flies retain sperm in a process called <a href="Female_sperm_storage" title="Female sperm storage">sperm storage</a> thereby increasing the duration of their fertility.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_types">Other types</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Semelparity_and_iteroparity" title="Semelparity and iteroparity">Semelparity and iteroparity</a></div>

<ul><li><b>Polycyclic animals</b> reproduce intermittently throughout their lives.</li>

<li><b>Semelparous organisms</b> reproduce only once in their lifetime,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <a href="Annual_plant" title="Annual plant">annual plants</a> (including all grain crops), and certain species of salmon, spider, bamboo and century plant.<sup id="cite_ref-Young_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often, they die shortly after reproduction. This is often associated with <a href="R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory">r-strategists</a>.</li>

<li><b>Iteroparous organisms</b> produce offspring in successive (e.g. annual or seasonal) cycles, such as <a href="Perennial_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Perennial plant">perennial plants</a>. Iteroparous animals survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes). This is more associated with <a href="R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory">K-strategists</a>.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Asexual_vs._sexual_reproduction">Asexual vs. sexual reproduction</h2></div>

<p>Organisms that reproduce through asexual reproduction tend to grow in number exponentially. However, because they rely on mutation for variations in their DNA, all members of the species have similar vulnerabilities. Organisms that reproduce sexually yield a smaller number of offspring, but the large amount of variation in their genes makes them less susceptible to disease.

</p><p>Many organisms can reproduce sexually as well as asexually. <a href="Aphid" title="Aphid">Aphids</a>, <a href="Slime_mold" title="Slime mold">slime molds</a>, <a href="Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a>, some species of <a href="Starfish" title="Starfish">starfish</a> (by <a href="Fragmentation_(reproduction)" title="Fragmentation (reproduction)">fragmentation</a>), and many plants are examples. When environmental factors are favorable, asexual reproduction is employed to exploit suitable conditions for survival such as an abundant food supply, adequate shelter, favorable climate, disease, optimum pH or a proper mix of other lifestyle requirements. Populations of these organisms increase exponentially via asexual reproductive strategies to take full advantage of the rich supply resources.<sup id="cite_ref-aphids_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aphids-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>When food sources have been depleted, the climate becomes hostile, or individual survival is jeopardized by some other adverse change in living conditions, these organisms switch to sexual forms of reproduction. Sexual reproduction ensures a mixing of the gene pool of the species. The variations found in offspring of sexual reproduction allow some individuals to be better suited for survival and provide a mechanism for selective adaptation to occur. The meiosis stage of the sexual cycle also allows especially effective repair of DNA damages (see <a href="Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-aphids_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aphids-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, sexual reproduction usually results in the formation of a life stage that is able to endure the conditions that threaten the offspring of an asexual parent. Thus, seeds, spores, eggs, pupae, cysts or other "over-wintering" stages of sexual reproduction ensure the survival during unfavorable times and the organism can "wait out" adverse situations until a swing back to suitability occurs.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life_without">Life without</h2></div>

<p>The existence of life without reproduction is the subject of some speculation. The biological study of how the origin of life produced reproducing organisms from non-reproducing elements is called <a href="Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">abiogenesis</a>. Whether or not there were several independent abiogenetic events, biologists believe that the <a href="Last_universal_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Last universal ancestor">last universal ancestor</a> to all present life on Earth lived about <a href="Timeline_of_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of evolution">3.5 billion years ago</a>.

</p><p>Scientists have speculated about the possibility of creating life non-reproductively in the laboratory. Several scientists have succeeded in producing simple viruses from entirely non-living materials.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, viruses are often regarded as not alive. Being nothing more than a bit of RNA or DNA in a protein capsule, they have no <a href="Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a> and can only <a href="Self-replication" title="Self-replication">replicate</a> with the assistance of a hijacked <a href="Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a>'s metabolic machinery.

</p><p>The production of a truly living organism (e.g. a simple bacterium) with no ancestors would be a much more complex task, but may well be possible to some degree according to current biological knowledge. A <a href="Synthetic_Genomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic Genomics">synthetic genome</a> has been transferred into an existing bacterium where it replaced the native DNA, resulting in the artificial production of a new <i><a href="M._mycoides" class="mw-redirect" title="M. mycoides">M. mycoides</a></i> organism.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>There is some debate within the scientific community over whether this cell can be considered completely synthetic<sup id="cite_ref-venter_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-venter-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on the grounds that the chemically synthesized genome was an almost 1:1 copy of a naturally occurring genome and, the recipient cell was a naturally occurring bacterium. The Craig Venter Institute maintains the term "synthetic bacterial cell" but they also clarify "...we do not consider this to be "creating life from scratch" but rather we are creating new life out of already existing life using synthetic DNA".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Venter plans to patent his experimental cells, stating that "they are pretty clearly human inventions".<sup id="cite_ref-venter_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-venter-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its creators suggests that building 'synthetic life' would allow researchers to learn about life by building it, rather than by tearing it apart. They also propose to stretch the boundaries between life and machines until the two overlap to yield "truly programmable organisms".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers involved stated that the creation of "true synthetic biochemical life" is relatively close in reach with current technology and cheap compared to the effort needed to place man on the Moon.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lottery_principle">Lottery principle</h2></div>

<p>Sexual reproduction has many drawbacks, since it requires far more energy than asexual reproduction and diverts the organisms from other pursuits, and there is some argument about why so many species use it. <a href="George_C._Williams_(biologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="George C. Williams (biologist)">George C. Williams</a> used <a href="Lottery" title="Lottery">lottery</a> tickets as an <a href="Analogy" title="Analogy">analogy</a> in one explanation for the widespread use of sexual reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that asexual reproduction, which produces little or no genetic variety in offspring, was like buying many tickets that all have the same number, limiting the chance of "winning" – that is, producing surviving offspring. Sexual reproduction, he argued, was like purchasing fewer tickets but with a greater variety of numbers and therefore a greater chance of success. The point of this analogy is that since asexual reproduction does not produce genetic variations, there is little ability to quickly adapt to a changing environment. The lottery principle is less accepted these days because of evidence that asexual reproduction is more prevalent in unstable environments, the opposite of what it predicts.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Breeding_season" class="mw-redirect" title="Breeding season">Breeding season</a></li>

<li><a href="Masting" class="mw-redirect" title="Masting">Masting</a></li>

<li><a href="Mating_system" title="Mating system">Mating system</a></li>

<li><a href="Modes_of_reproduction" title="Modes of reproduction">Modes of reproduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Plant reproduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ridley M (2004) Evolution, 3rd edition. Blackwell Publishing, p. 314.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-maynard-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-maynard_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">John Maynard Smith</a> <i>The Evolution of Sex</i> 1978.</span>

</li>

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<li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCraig_Venter_Institute" class="citation web cs1">Craig Venter Institute. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101228180155/http://www.jcvi.org/cms/research/projects/first-self-replicating-synthetic-bacterial-cell/faq/">"FAQ"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jcvi.org/cms/research/projects/first-self-replicating-synthetic-bacterial-cell/faq">the original</a> on 2010-12-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-04-24</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFW._Wayte_Gibbs2004" class="citation journal cs1">W. Wayte Gibbs (May 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121013161012/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=synthetic-life">"Synthetic Life"</a>. <i>Scientific American</i>. <b>290</b> (5): 75. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004SciAm.290e..75G">2004SciAm.290e..75G</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0504-75">10.1038/scientificamerican0504-75</a>. Archived from <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=synthetic-life">the original</a></span> on 2012-10-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-12-22</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/video/artificial-life/">"NOVA: Artificial life"</a>. <i><a href="PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a></i>. 18 October 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070121003935/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3214/01.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2007-01-21<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-01-19</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="George_C._Williams_(biologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="George C. Williams (biologist)">Williams G. C.</a> 1975. Sex and Evolution. Princeton (NJ): Princeton University Press.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLivelyMorran2014" class="citation journal cs1">Lively, C. M.; Morran, L. T. (July 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4077903">"The ecology of sexual reproduction"</a>. <i>Journal of Evolutionary Biology</i>. <b>27</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">1292–</span>1303. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fjeb.12354">10.1111/jeb.12354</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4077903">4077903</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24617324">24617324</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

<ul><li>Tobler, M. & Schlupp, I. (2005) Parasites in sexual and asexual mollies (Poecilia, Poeciliidae, Teleostei): a case for the Red Queen? Biol. Lett. 1 (2): 166–168.</li>

<li><a href="Carl_Zimmer" title="Carl Zimmer">Zimmer, Carl</a>. <i><a href="Parasite_Rex%3A_Inside_the_Bizarre_World_of_Nature's_Most_Dangerous_Creatures" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite Rex: Inside the Bizarre World of Nature's Most Dangerous Creatures">Parasite Rex: Inside the Bizarre World of Nature's Most Dangerous Creatures</a></i>, New York: Touchstone, 2001.</li>

<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Allogamy, cross-fertilization, cross-pollination, hybridization". <i>GardenWeb Glossary of Botanical Terms</i> (2.1 ed.). 2002.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Allogamy". <i>Stedman's Online Medical Dictionary</i> (27 ed.). 2004.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Judson, Olivia (2003). <i><a href="Dr_Tatiana's_Sex_Advice_to_All_Creation" title="Dr Tatiana's Sex Advice to All Creation">Dr. Tatiana's Sex Advice to All Creation: Definitive Guide to the Evolutionary Biology of Sex.</a></i> <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-09-928375-1</bdi></li>

<li>Richard E. Michod and Bruce E. Levin, editors (1987). <i>The Evolution of Sex: An Examination of Current Ideas</i>. Sinauer Associates Inc., Publishers, Sunderland, MA <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-87893-459-1</bdi></li>

<li>Michod, R.E. (1994). <i>Eros and Evolution: A natural philosophy of sex</i>. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, MA <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-201-44232-8</bdi></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Reproduction" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Reproduction">Reproduction</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/AsexualReproduction.html">Asexual Reproduction</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180122112348/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/A/AsexualReproduction.html">Archived</a> 2018-01-22 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biolreprod.org/">Journal of Biology of Reproduction</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.andrologyjournal.org/">Journal of Andrology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051107234115/http://www.andrologyjournal.org/">Archived</a> 2005-11-07 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li>

<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Reproduction"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Reproduction">"Reproduction" </a></span>. <i><a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). 1911.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/replication/">"Replication and Reproduction." <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Microbiology:_Protistology:_Protists108" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a>: <a href="Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a>: <a href="Protist" title="Protist">Protists</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former<br>classifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Protozoa" title="Protozoa">Protozoa</a>

<ul><li><a href="Flagellate" title="Flagellate">Mastigophora/Flagellates</a></li>

<li><a href="Amoeba" title="Amoeba">Sarcodina/Amoeboids</a>

<ul><li><a href="Testate_amoebae" title="Testate amoebae">Testate</a></li>

<li><a href="Heliozoa" title="Heliozoa">Heliozoa</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Infusoria" title="Infusoria">Infusoria</a>/<a href="Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliates</a></li>

<li><a href="Apicomplexa#Taxonomy" title="Apicomplexa">Sporozoa</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Algae" title="Algae">Algae</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryptogam" title="Cryptogam">Cryptogams</a></li>

<li><a href="Thallophyte" title="Thallophyte">Thallophytes</a></li>

<li><a href="Fungus#Fungus-like_organisms" title="Fungus">Fungus-like organisms</a></li>

<li><a href="Slime_mold" title="Slime mold">Slime molds</a></li>

<li><a href="Nomenclature_codes#Ambiregnal_protists" title="Nomenclature codes">Ambiregnal protists</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Morphology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;"><a href="Archaeplastida" title="Archaeplastida">Archaeplastida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Viridiplantae" title="Viridiplantae">Viridiplantae</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>"<a href="Green_algae" title="Green algae">Green algae</a>": <a href="Phycoplast" title="Phycoplast">Phycoplast</a></li>

<li><a href="Phragmoplast" title="Phragmoplast">Phragmoplast</a></li>

<li><a href="Flagellum#Types" title="Flagellum">Flagellar apparatus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Glaucophyte" title="Glaucophyte">Glaucophytes</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cyanelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanelle">Cyanelles</a></li>

<li><a href="Phycobilisome" title="Phycobilisome">Phycobilisomes</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Red_algae" title="Red algae">Red algae</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Pit_connection" title="Pit connection">Pit connection</a></li>

<li><a href="Phycobilisome" title="Phycobilisome">Phycobilisomes</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><a href="Hacrobia" title="Hacrobia">Hacrobia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Cryptomonad" title="Cryptomonad">Cryptophyta</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mastigoneme" title="Mastigoneme">Mastigoneme</a></li>

<li><a href="Periplast" title="Periplast">Periplast</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Haptophyte" title="Haptophyte">Haptophytes</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Coccolith" title="Coccolith">Coccolith</a></li>

<li><a href="Haptophyte#Characteristics" title="Haptophyte">Haptonema</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><a href="Stramenopile" title="Stramenopile">Stramenopiles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold">General:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Mastigoneme" title="Mastigoneme">Mastigoneme</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Diatom" title="Diatom">Diatoms</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Frustule" title="Frustule">Frustule</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Brown_algae" title="Brown algae">Brown algae</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Lamina_(algae)" title="Lamina (algae)">Lamina</a></li>

<li><a href="Pneumatocyst" title="Pneumatocyst">Pneumatocyst</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><a href="Alveolate" title="Alveolate">Alveolata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold">General:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Alveolate#Characteristics" title="Alveolate"> Alveoli</a></li>

<li><a href="Trichocyst" title="Trichocyst">Trichocyst</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">Dinoflagellates</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dinokaryon" title="Dinokaryon">Dinokaryon</a></li>

<li><a href="Dinocyst" title="Dinocyst">Dinocyst</a></li>

<li><a href="Theca" title="Theca">Theca</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Ciliate" title="Ciliate">Ciliates</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cilium" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li>

<li><a href="Cirrus_(biology)" title="Cirrus (biology)">Cirrus</a></li>

<li><a href="Macronucleus" title="Macronucleus">Macronucleus</a></li>

<li><a href="Micronucleus" title="Micronucleus">Micronucleus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#ADFF2F;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Apicomplexa" title="Apicomplexa">Apicomplexans</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Rhoptry" title="Rhoptry">Rhoptry</a></li>

<li><a href="Apicoplast" title="Apicoplast">Apicoplast</a></li>

<li><a href="Microneme" title="Microneme">Microneme</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(225,204,252);"><a href="Rhizaria" title="Rhizaria">Rhizaria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Phytomyxea84" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:rgb(225,204,252);"><span class="nobold"><a href="Phytomyxea" title="Phytomyxea">Phytomyxea</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nuclear_division" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear division">Cruciform division</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F0E68C;">"<a href="Excavata" title="Excavata">Excavata</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F0E68C;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Kinetoplastid" title="Kinetoplastid">Kinetoplastids</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Kinetoplast" title="Kinetoplast">Kinetoplast</a></li>

<li><a href="Glycosome" title="Glycosome">Glycosome</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#F0E68C;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Euglenid" title="Euglenid">Euglenida</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Periplast" title="Periplast">Periplast/pellicle</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC8A0;"><a href="Amoebozoa" title="Amoebozoa">Amoebozoa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Dictyostelids:88" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#FFC8A0;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Dictyostelid" title="Dictyostelid">Dictyostelids</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Macrocyst" title="Macrocyst">Macrocyst</a></li>

<li><a href="Sorocarp" title="Sorocarp">Sorocarp</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Opisthokont" title="Opisthokont">Opisthokonta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Choanoflagellates:92" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#D3D3A4;"><span class="nobold"><a href="Choanoflagellate" title="Choanoflagellate">Choanoflagellates</a>:</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Microvillus" title="Microvillus">Collar of microvilli</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organisationsstufe" class="extiw external" title="de:Organisationsstufe">Levels of<br>organization</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Unicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicellular">Unicellular</a>

<ul><li><a href="Flagellate" title="Flagellate">Monadoid</a></li>

<li><a href="Amoeboid" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoeboid">Amoeboid</a></li>

<li><a href="Coccoid_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Coccoid (disambiguation)">Coccoid</a></li>

<li><a href="Amoeboflagellate" title="Amoeboflagellate">Amoeboflagellate</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">Colonial</a> <a href="Sensu_stricto" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensu stricto">s.s.</a>

<ul><li>Colonial flagellated</li>

<li>Tetrasporal/capsal/palmelloid</li>

<li>Sarcinoid</li>

<li><a href="Coenobium_(morphology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Coenobium (morphology)">Coenobial</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Filamentous/trichal/<a href="Hyphal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyphal">hyphal</a></li>

<li><a href="Parenchymatous" class="mw-redirect" title="Parenchymatous">Parenchymatous</a></li>

<li><a href="Pseudoparenchyma" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudoparenchyma">Pseudoparenchymatous</a>/plektenchymatic</li>

<li>Membranous/thalloid/foliaceous</li>

<li><a href="Multinucleated" class="mw-redirect" title="Multinucleated">Multinucleated</a>

<ul><li><a href="Syncytial" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncytial">Syncytial</a></li>

<li><a href="Coenocytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Coenocytic">Coenocytic</a>

<ul><li>Siphonous</li>

<li>Siphonocladous</li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Multicellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicellular">Multicellular</a> <a href="Sensu_stricto" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensu stricto">s.s.</a>/<a href="Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissular</a>/histonal</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold"><a href="Cell_wall#Other_cell_coverings" title="Cell wall">Cell surface<br>structures</a></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">Simple cell membrane</a></li>

<li><a href="Mucilage" title="Mucilage">Mucilage</a></li>

<li><a href="Scale_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scale (anatomy)">Scale</a></li>

<li><a href="Frustule" title="Frustule">Frustule</a></li>

<li><a href="Lorica_(biology)" title="Lorica (biology)">Lorica</a></li>

<li><a href="Skeleton" title="Skeleton">Skeleton</a></li>

<li><a href="Theca" title="Theca">Theca</a></li>

<li><a href="Periplast" title="Periplast">Periplast/pellicle</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Locomotion</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Flagellum" title="Flagellum">Flagellum</a></li>

<li><a href="Cilium" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li>

<li><a href="Pseudopodia" title="Pseudopodia">Pseudopodia</a></li>

<li><a href="Gliding_motility" title="Gliding motility">Gliding motility</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Mitochondria</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hydrogenosome" title="Hydrogenosome">Hydrogenosome</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitosome" title="Mitosome">Mitosome</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Nucleus</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nucleomorph" title="Nucleomorph">Nucleomorph</a></li>

<li><a href="Multinucleate" class="mw-redirect" title="Multinucleate">Multinucleate cells</a>

<ul><li><a href="Plasmodium_(life_cycle)" title="Plasmodium (life cycle)">Plasmodium</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Dikaryon" title="Dikaryon">Dikaryon</a></li>

<li><a href="Heterokaryon" title="Heterokaryon">Heterokaryon</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis in protists</a>

<li>Closed</li>

<li>Orthomitosis</li>

<li>Pleuromitosis</li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Meiosis#Occurrence_in_eukaryotic_life_cycles" title="Meiosis">Meiosis in protists</a>

<ul><li>Gametic</li>

<li>Zygotic</li>

<li>Sporic</li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><span class="nobold">Other</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Cytostome" title="Cytostome">Cytostome</a></li>

<li><a href="Fimbria_(bacteriology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fimbria (bacteriology)">Fimbriae</a></li>

<li><a href="Extrusome" title="Extrusome">Extrusome</a></li>

<li><a href="Contractile_vacuole" title="Contractile vacuole">Contractile vacuole</a></li>

<li><a href="Eyespot_apparatus" title="Eyespot apparatus">Eyespot apparatus</a></li>

<li><a href="Pyrenoid" title="Pyrenoid">Pyrenoid</a></li>

<li><a href="Axostyle" title="Axostyle">Axostyle</a></li>

<li><a href="Mastigont_system" title="Mastigont system">Mastigont system</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecology and<br>physiology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Microbial_biogeography" title="Microbial biogeography">Microbial biogeography</a></li>

<li><a href="Lourens_Baas_Becking#Baas_Becking_hypothesis" title="Lourens Baas Becking">Baas-Becking hypothesis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Development</a>/

<ul><li><a href="Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycles</a></li>

<li><a href="Fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertilization">Fertilization</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Nutrition: <a href="Autotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Autotrophy">Autotrophy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Phototrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Phototrophy">Phototrophy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Heterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterotrophy">Heterotrophy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Phagotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Phagotrophy">Phagotrophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Osmotrophy" title="Osmotrophy">Osmotrophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Saprotrophic_nutrition" title="Saprotrophic nutrition">Saprotrophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a>

<ul><li><a href="Biotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotrophy">Biotrophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Necrotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Necrotrophy">Necrotrophy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Mixotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mixotrophy">Mixotrophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Auxotrophy" title="Auxotrophy">Auxotrophy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biology858" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Biology858" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li>Introduction (<a href="Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Genetics</a>, <a href="Introduction_to_evolution" title="Introduction to evolution">Evolution</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_biology" title="Outline of biology">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History</a>

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_biology_and_organic_chemistry" title="Timeline of biology and organic chemistry">Timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_biology_articles" title="Index of biology articles">Index</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Science" title="Science">Science</a></li>

<li>Properties (<a href="Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a>, <a href="Metabolism" title="Metabolism"> Energy processing</a>, <a href="Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Growth</a>, <a href="Structure#Biological" title="Structure">Order</a>, <a href="Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Regulation</a>,  (<a href="Self-replication" title="Self-replication">Self-replication</a>), <a href="Stimulus_(physiology)" title="Stimulus (physiology)">Response to environment</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Biological_organisation" title="Biological organisation">Hierarchy of life</a> (<a href="Atom" title="Atom">Atom</a> > <a href="Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecule</a> > <a href="Organelle" title="Organelle">Organelle</a> > <a href="Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cell</a> > <a href="Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">Tissue</a> > <a href="Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">Organ</a> > <a href="Biological_system" title="Biological system">Organ system</a> > <a href="Organism" title="Organism">Organism</a> > <a href="Population" title="Population">Population</a> > <a href="Biocoenosis" title="Biocoenosis">Community</a> > <a href="Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a> > <a href="Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Reductionistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergence" title="Emergence"> Emergent property</a></li>

<li><a href="Mechanical_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical philosophy">Mechanistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li>

<li><a href="Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">Taxonomic rank</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory"> Theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_biology_journals" title="List of biology journals">Biology journals</a></li>

<li><a href="Common_name" title="Common name">Common name</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Atom" title="Atom">Atoms</a></li>

<li><a href="Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acids</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">Carbohydrates</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_bond" title="Chemical bond">Chemical bond</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">Chemical element</a></li>

<li><a href="Lipid" title="Lipid">Lipids</a></li>

<li><a href="Matter" title="Matter">Matter</a>

<ul><li><a href="Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Molecule" title="Molecule">Molecules</a></li>

<li><a href="Monomer" title="Monomer">Monomer</a></li>

<li><a href="Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">Nucleic acids</a></li>

<li><a href="Organic_compound" title="Organic compound">Organic compounds</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymer" title="Polymer">Polymer</a></li>

<li><a href="Protein" title="Protein">Proteins</a></li>

<li><a href="Water" title="Water">Water</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">Cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Cell_cycle" title="Cell cycle">Cell cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">Cell signaling</a></li>

<li><a href="Cellular_respiration" title="Cellular respiration">Cellular respiration</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy" title="Energy">Energy transformation</a></li>

<li><a href="Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzyme</a></li>

<li><a href="Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a></li>

<li><a href="Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li>

<li><a href="Metabolism" title="Metabolism">Metabolism</a></li>

<li><a href="Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitosis" title="Mitosis">Mitosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryote</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Evolutionary developmental biology">Evolutionary developmental biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">Gene expression</a></li>

<li><a href="Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">Gene regulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Genome" title="Genome">Genomes</a></li>

<li><a href="Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-transcriptional_modification" title="Post-transcriptional modification">Post-transcriptional modification</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Adaptation" title="Adaptation">Adaptation</a></li>

<li><a href="Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">Earliest known life forms</a></li>

<li><a href="Function_(biology)" title="Function (biology)">Function</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_drift" title="Genetic drift">Genetic drift</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_life" title="History of life">History of life</a></li>

<li><a href="Macroevolution" title="Macroevolution">Macroevolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Microevolution" title="Microevolution">Microevolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Speciation" title="Speciation">Speciation</a></li>

<li><a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Diversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li>

<li><a href="Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a></li>

<li><a href="Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryote</a>

<li><a href="Animal" title="Animal">Animal</a></li>

<li><a href="Fungus" title="Fungus">Fungus</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant" title="Plant">Plant</a></li>

<li><a href="Protist" title="Protist">Protist</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plant form <br> and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Epidermis_(botany)" title="Epidermis (botany)">Epidermis (botany)</a></li>

<li><a href="Flower" title="Flower">Flower</a></li>

<li><a href="Ground_tissue" title="Ground tissue">Ground tissue</a></li>

<li><a href="Phloem" title="Phloem">Phloem</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant_stem" title="Plant stem">Plant stem</a></li>

<li><a href="Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">Shoot</a></li>

<li><a href="Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">Vascular plant</a></li>

<li><a href="Vascular_tissue" title="Vascular tissue">Vascular tissue</a></li>

<li><a href="Xylem" title="Xylem">Xylem</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Animal form <br>and function</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Breathing" title="Breathing">Breathing</a></li>

<li><a href="Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></li>

<li><a href="Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></li>

<li><a href="Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">Homeostasis</a></li>

<li><a href="Immune_system" title="Immune system">Immune system</a></li>

<li><a href="Internal_environment" title="Internal environment">Internal environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></li>

<li><a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_system" title="Reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></li>

<li><a href="Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li>

<li><a href="Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></li>

<li><a href="Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate" title="Climate">Climate</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem</a></li>

<li><a href="Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niche</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Microbiome" title="Microbiome">Microbiome</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resources</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_research_methods_in_biology" title="List of research methods in biology">Research <br> methods</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Laboratory <br> techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li>

<li><a href="Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">Gel electrophoresis</a></li>

<li><a href="Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li>

<li><a href="Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li>

<li><a href="DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></li>

<li><a href="DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">DNA microarray</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">Green fluorescent protein</a></li>

<li><a href="Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a></li>

<li><a href="Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li>

<li><a href="Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">Protein purification</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a></li>

<li><a href="Northern_blot" title="Northern blot">Northern blot</a></li>

<li><a href="Southern_blot" title="Southern blot">Southern blot</a></li>

<li><a href="Restriction_enzyme" title="Restriction enzyme">Restriction enzyme</a></li>

<li><a href="Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">Polymerase chain reaction</a></li>

<li><a href="Two-hybrid_screening" title="Two-hybrid screening">Two-hybrid screening</a></li>

<li><i><a href="In_vitro" title="In vitro">in vitro</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="In_silico" title="In silico">in silico</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Field techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Belt_transect" title="Belt transect">Belt transect</a></li>

<li><a href="Mark_and_recapture" title="Mark and recapture">mark and recapture</a></li>

<li><a href="Species_discovery_curve" title="Species discovery curve">species discovery curve</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt">

<ul><li><a href="Abiogenesis" title="Abiogenesis">Abiogenesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Aerobiology" title="Aerobiology">Aerobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Agronomy" title="Agronomy">Agronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Agrostology" title="Agrostology">Agrostology</a></li>

<li><a href="Anatomy" title="Anatomy">Anatomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Anthropogeny</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Astrobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">Bacteriology</a></li>

<li><a href="Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li>

<li><a href="Biogeology" title="Biogeology">Biogeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Biomathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomechanics" title="Biomechanics">Biomechanics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biophysics" title="Biophysics">Biophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biosemiotics" title="Biosemiotics">Biosemiotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Botany" title="Botany">Botany</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_biology" title="Cell biology">Cell biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cellular_microbiology" title="Cellular microbiology">Cellular microbiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_biology" title="Chemical biology">Chemical biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Chronobiology" title="Chronobiology">Chronobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_biology" title="Cognitive biology">Cognitive biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_biology" title="Computational biology">Computational biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cryobiology" title="Cryobiology">Cryobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Dendrology" title="Dendrology">Dendrology</a></li>

<li><a href="Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">Developmental biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li>

<li><a href="Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Gerontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Herpetology" title="Herpetology">Herpetology</a></li>

<li><a href="Histology" title="Histology">Histology</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_biology" title="Human biology">Human biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Ichthyology" title="Ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li>

<li><a href="Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li>

<li><a href="Lipidology" title="Lipidology">Lipidology</a></li>

<li><a href="Mammalogy" title="Mammalogy">Mammalogy</a></li>

<li><a href="Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Mycology" title="Mycology">Mycology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neontology" title="Neontology">Neontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Nutritional_science" title="Nutritional science">Nutrition</a></li>

<li><a href="Ornithology" title="Ornithology">Ornithology</a></li>

<li><a href="Osteology" title="Osteology">Osteology</a></li>

<li><a href="Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li>

<li><a href="Photobiology" title="Photobiology">Photobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Phycology" title="Phycology">Phycology</a></li>

<li><a href="Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pomology" title="Pomology">Pomology</a></li>

<li><a href="Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li>

<li><a href="Proteomics" title="Proteomics">Proteomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Protistology" title="Protistology">Protistology</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantum_biology" title="Quantum biology">Quantum biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_biology" title="Reproductive biology">Reproductive biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Structural_biology" title="Structural biology">Structural biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systematics" title="Systematics">Systematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Systems biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Taxonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Teratology" title="Teratology">Teratology</a></li>

<li><a href="Toxicology" title="Toxicology">Toxicology</a></li>

<li><a href="Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li>

<li><a href="Virophysics" title="Virophysics">Virophysics</a></li>

<li><a href="Welfare_biology" title="Welfare biology">Welfare biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Xenobiology" title="Xenobiology">Xenobiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Zoology" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li></ul></div></div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Glossaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botanical terms</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecological terms</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_plant_morphology" title="Glossary of plant morphology">Plant morphology terms</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> </span><a href="Portal%3ABiology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology portal</a></span></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biology" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Biology">Commons</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"></span></span> WikiProject</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bioethics187" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Bioethics187" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classic principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Beneficence_(ethics)" title="Beneficence (ethics)">Beneficence</a></li>

<li><a href="Primum_non_nocere" title="Primum non nocere">Non-maleficence</a></li>

<li><a href="Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li>

<li><a href="Confidentiality" title="Confidentiality">Confidentiality</a></li>

<li><a href="Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Principle_of_double_effect" title="Principle of double effect">Doctrine of double effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_equity" title="Health equity">Equity</a></li>

<li><a href="Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">Guilt</a></li>

<li><a href="Mercy" title="Mercy">Mercy</a></li>

<li><a href="Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy" title="Privacy">Privacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Persuasion" title="Persuasion">Persuasion</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Theory" title="Theory">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_technology" title="Reproductive technology">Reproductive technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_assignment" title="Sex assignment">Gender assignment</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li>

<li><a href="Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">Genetic testing</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_engineering" title="Genetic engineering">Genetic modification</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Death, dying, and<br>emergent situations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arbitration" title="Arbitration">Arbitration</a></li>

<li><a href="Brain_death" title="Brain death">Brain death</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiac_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac death">Cardiac death</a></li>

<li><a href="Consensus_decision-making" title="Consensus decision-making">Consensus</a></li>

<li>Court intervention</li>

<li><a href="Death" title="Death">Death</a></li>

<li><a href="Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">Euthanasia</a></li>

<li><a href="Executor" title="Executor">Executor</a></li>

<li>Family meeting</li>

<li><a href="Mediation" title="Mediation">Mediation</a></li>

<li><a href="Healthcare_proxy" title="Healthcare proxy">Health care proxy</a></li>

<li><a href="Suicide" title="Suicide">Suicide</a></li>

<li>Transplant ethics</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural differences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li>

<li><a href="Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li>

<li><a href="Jewish_medical_ethics" title="Jewish medical ethics">Jewish medical ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li>

<li><a href="Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personal conduct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Position_of_trust" title="Position of trust">Abuse of trust</a></li>

<li><a href="Continuity_of_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuity of care">Continuity of care</a></li>

<li><a href="Gift" title="Gift">Gifts</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_liability" title="Legal liability">Liability</a></li>

<li><a href="Lie" title="Lie">Lying</a></li>

<li><a href="Misconduct" title="Misconduct">Misconduct</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">Scientific misconduct</a></li>

<li>Medical misconduct</li>

<li><a href="Competence_(law)" title="Competence (law)">Competence (law)</a></li>

<li><a href="Competence_(human_resources)" title="Competence (human resources)">Competency</a></li>

<li><a href="Incompetency" class="mw-redirect" title="Incompetency">Incompetency</a></li>

<li>Termination of the patient-physician relationship</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research ethics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ethics_committee" title="Ethics committee">Ethics committee</a></li>

<li><a href="Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">Informed consent</a></li>

<li><a href="Informed_assent" title="Informed assent">Informed assent</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Institutional_review_board" title="Institutional review board">Institutional review board</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_challenge_study" title="Human challenge study">Human challenge study</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11990#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1790" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11990#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1790" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4017982-5">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85112953">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Reproduction"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932756h">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Reproduction"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932756h">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00570438">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="rozmnožování (biologie)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph172851&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000080504&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810617084205606">Poland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007531630405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/22479a2b-d4e5-4ada-bae2-681a8a36a30b">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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